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1997 Jarrell tornado

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"Dead man walking tornado" redirects here. For other tornadoes informally called this, see Dead Man Walking (disambiguation) § Tornadoes.
1997 Jarrell tornado
alt=Top: A famous photograph of the tornado, nicknamed the "Dead Man Walking". The tornado is seen, shrouded in debris behind a tree line, while two of its sub-vortices appearing to be making walking shapes. Bottom: A scan of the tornado as it hit Jarrell, showing the ellipses-like cloud going southwest before a debris ball can be seen.
View of the Jarrell tornado as it moved near the Double Creek Estates area
Meteorological history
DateMay 27, 1997
FormedMay 27, 1997, 3:40 pm. CDT (UTC−05:00)
DissipatedMay 27, 1997, 3:53 pm. CDT (UTC−05:00)
Duration13 minutes
F5 tornado
on the Fujita scale
Highest winds>261 mph (420 km/h)
Overall effects
Fatalities27
Injuries12
Damage$40.1 million (1997 USD)
Areas affectedJarrell, Texas and areas near Prairie Dell, Texas
[1]
Part of the 1997 Central Texas tornado outbreak and tornadoes of 1997

On the afternoon of May 27, 1997, a deadly and powerful F5 tornado produced catastrophic damage across portions of the Jarrell, Texas area. The tornado killed 27 residents of the town, many in a single subdivision, and inflicted a total of $40.1 million (1997 USD) in damages in its 13-minute, 5.1 miles (8.2 km) track. It occurred as part a tornado outbreak across central Texas; it was produced by a supercell that had developed from an unstable airmass and favorable meteorological conditions at the time, including high convective available potential energy (CAPE) values and warm dewpoints.

Several weaker tornadoes prior to the Jarrell tornado touched down and inflicted damage in nearby areas, particularly in Travis and Williamson counties. The Fort Worth branch of the National Weather Service issued several tornado watches and warnings as a result, and later issued a tornado warning for the area encompassing Jarrell as the tornado-producing supercell approached the town. Shortly thereafter, within the Williamson County line, the tornado touched down as an indistinct multi-vortex swathed in dust, which then strengthened rapidly as its width grew. As the tornado moved through a neighborhood near Jarrell, it began to slow down, before stopping completely over the area while reaching its maximum width and retaining intense winds. The tornado stalled over the neighborhood for approximately 3 minutes, producing some of the most extreme tornadic wind damage ever recorded. As the tornado left the subdivision, it began to weaken, before dissipating in a forested area. In total, 27 residents of Jarrell were killed,[note 1] and the tornado left behind a path of devastation, including multiple buildings swept off of their foundations.

As of 2024, this tornado is Texas' most recent F5 or EF5 tornado. The tornado was the fourth-deadliest of the 1990s in the United States, only being surpassed by the 1990 Plainfield tornado that killed 29, the 1998 Birmingham tornado that killed 32, and the 1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado that killed 36. It was the only F5 tornado of 1997, and the next F5-rated tornado would occur on April 8 of the following year.

Meteorological synopsis

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Main article: 1997 Central Texas tornado outbreak § Meteorological synopsis
A NEXRAD radar animation loop showing the southward progression of the supercell that produced the tornado

On the morning of May 27, 1997, an upper-level low-pressure area located over portions of South Dakota and Nebraska had moved northward which caused a weak, mid-level flow across Texas. While this occurred, a cold front extended southwest of a surface-based low-pressure area from Fayetteville, Arkansas to the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex to the Permian Basin, which also included two decaying outflow boundaries northeast of the DFW metroplex. A gravity wave was also noted from the cold front near Waco, Texas and southward, which would promote initiation of supercells, including the one which produced the Jarrell tornado.[2] The latter two factors were caused by an overnight mesoscale convective system which had dissipated before the mesoscale setup of the Jarrell tornado.[3]

An upper-air balloon sounding was conducted by the National Weather Service in Fort Worth while the cold front passed directly over the DFW metroplex, which showed favorable mid-level lapse rates, a dewpoint temperature of 73 °F (23 °C) on the surface, and some wind shear, though not towards the surface, which suggested non-tornadic supercell activity. However, a sounding launched from Calvert, Texas a few hours later revealed surface-based convective available potential energy (CAPE) values above 6500 j/kg, up from 3000 j/kg shown by the sounding previously launched over the DFW metroplex.[2] This, along with extremely high CAPE values shown near the surface from a sounding over Waco at 12:00 CDT (17:00 UTC), likely caused vorticity near and along the cold front and the production of the Jarrell tornado.[2]

The supercell that produced the Jarrell tornado first developed in McLennan County before noon, initially moving slowly southwestward in the unstable airmass.[2] Shortly thereafter, a tornado watch was issued by the Storm Prediction Center for eastern Texas and western Louisiana. As the thunderstorm cell moved parallel to Interstate 35, it rapidly intensified and prompted the issuance of a severe thunderstorm warning for portions of McLennan County at 12:50 CDT (17:50 UTC), later being upgraded to a tornado warning as the supercell then began to rapidly exhibit lower-levels of rotation.[2] This would result in multiple tornadoes being produced before the Jarrell tornado occurred; most notably an F3 tornado which caused severe damage in portions of Falls County near Bruceville-Eddy and Lake Belton.[2] Another tornado, rated an F0, touched down near Stillhouse Dam and was incorrectly claimed as the Jarrell tornado due to its close proximity from the F5 tornado's path. This tornado was also subject of a famous image.[4]

Shortly thereafter, the supercell began to move slightly westward towards Jarrell and Salado while continuing to show signs of rapid, low-level rotation. This would result in another tornado warning being issued by the National Weather Service in Austin/San Antonio for Williamson County, including Jarrell, at 15:30 CDT (22:30 UTC), in response to the storm's approach to the town. The warning was in effect for a duration of one hour, and local warning sirens in the town went off an estimated 10–12 minutes before the impact.[2][5][6] Multiple short-lived, small, and rope-like funnel clouds preceded the Jarrell tornado; and despite being theorized and commonly accepted as being separate tornadoes, there is a possibility that these were part of it.[4] Additionally, some reports stated an F1 tornado near Prairie Dell as an earlier continuation of this tornado.[4]

Tornado summary

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The tornado officially touched down within the Williamson County line 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Jarrell as a faint, drill-bit funnel wrapped in large amounts of dust at 3:40 pm CDT (20:40 UTC). The tornado began to undergo a rapid intensification as it took on a multi-vortex shape.[7][4] Traffic along Interstate 35 came to a stop as the tornado descended nearby;[8] the Texas Highway Patrol also stopped traffic on both sides of the interstate under the expectation that the tornado would cross the highway. However, it instead moved parallel to Interstate 35 without impacting the roadway.[9]

Tracking south-southwest, the tornado quickly intensified and grew in width.[2] The exact size of the tornado was difficult to determine during this portion of the tornado's life. Its intense winds scoured the ground, vegetation, and stripped pavement from three county roads; the thickness of the asphalt pavement was an estimated 3 inches (7.6 cm).[10][11] A culvert plant near the intersection of two county roads collapsed. Nearby, a similar plant and a mobile home sustained some damage, with the latter struck by a 2×4'' piece of lumber.[4] Some of the most extreme damage nearby was inflicted to a small metal-framed recycling plant that was directly hit and destroyed, with only several twisted and bent metal beams remaining.[7] Multiple people were sheltering in a mobile home far south of the recycling plant, but later decided to evacuate to a frame house to take cover. The frame house was directly hit by the tornado moments later, killing everyone inside, while the mobile home only sustained minor damage.[12]

The tornado turned slightly, entering the Double Creek Estates at F5 intensity.[7] It grew to its maximum width, estimated to be 3⁄4 mile (1.2 km). Post-event surveys and eyewitness accounts suggested that the tornado began to slow its pace, contributing to the extremely violent damage observed there.[2][13] The tornado immediately began to destroy structures and homes as it hit multiple smaller streets at the northeastern edge of the Estates. The exact time of this is unknown, but timekeeping devices from remaining debris and synced videos had the tornado's starting impact at most likely 3:48 pm.[10][7]

The entire neighborhood of Double Creek Estates was subject to extreme winds for three minutes due to the "stalling" pattern of the tornado, which likely exacerbated the damage. Multiple well-built homes on Double Creek Drive were completely swept away and clean slabs[note 2] were left with a lack of any large debris.[4][14] Foundations in the direct path of the tornado had all of their plumbing and sill plates ripped away, with some of the foundations partially scoured as well.[15] There were 38 structures in Double Creek Estates that were destroyed; three businesses adjacent to the neighborhood were also completely demolished.[14][16] Grassy fields in this area also sustained extreme ground scouring of up to 18 inches (46 cm).[4] As a result of this, the path was heavily studied due to its visibility and ground scarring.[4][14] In total, the tornado dealt $10–20 million (1997 USD) in damage to Double Creek Estates.[16]

After exiting the Double Creek Estates area, the tornado then crossed over a county road while paralleling Spears Ranch Road.[17] After continuing into a cedar tree forest, it began to rapidly weaken, crossing over Appaloosa Cove Road before dissipating.[4] The National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) concluded that it had lifted at 3:53 pm, remaining on the ground for 13 minutes and traversing 5.1 miles (8.2 km).[4][7]

"Dead man walking" photograph

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The Jarrell tornado was the subject of a well-known photograph, now known as the "Dead Man Walking".[18] It was taken by Scott Beckwith, and the picture became known for its resemblance to the grim reaper, a figure that commonly represents death in several cultures.[19]

The image consists of the tornado, shrouded in debris, with the main vortex and an adjacent subvortex making "leg" shapes near the bottom of the tornado, giving it the appearance of a giant silhouette walking across the ground. A third subvortex separate from the main funnel is also seen.[19] The image, which is just one in a sequence of 8 photographs taken as the tornado grew in size, has been widely called an example of pareidolia.[19] The photo has received international attention and the Jarrell tornado has popularized the "Dead Man Walking" nickname for similar multi-vortex tornadoes with "legs".[18]

Impact and casualties

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A memorial for the victims of the tornado, and another tornado that hit Jarrell in 1989.

The tornado overall caused widespread damage to structures, and destroyed an estimated 40 family residences.[20] Of these estimated 40 homes, multiple were completely swept off their foundations as a result of the wind.[21] Many of the structures that were swept away were located in the double Creek Estates. The damage from the tornado was classified as F5 severity throughout most of the tornado's path.[22] Approximately $40 million in damage was inflicted upon property with another $100,000 (1997 USD) inflicted upon crops.[16] Additionally, the tornado picked up cars which were either mangled beyond recognition or torn apart. At least six recognizable cars were found over 300 yards (270 m) away, despite being crushed and mud-covered. Many were never recovered, and are presumed to have been "ground up" inside the debris ball. All trees in the subdivision were completely debarked, with one small tree documented to have had an electrical cord pierced through its trunk.[14]

Out of the 131 residents who lived in or near Double Creek Estates, 31 were initially believed to have been killed, but that number was lowered to 27.[22][23] The remains of these people were found at over 30 locations, and the majority of the deaths were reported in the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report as being caused by bodily and head trauma and one fatality was reported to have been caused by asphyxia. Bodily remains were later found at 30 locations, and the physical trauma inflicted on some of the tornado victims was so extreme that first responders reportedly had difficulty distinguishing human remains from the remains of animals at the sites, as the remains were reportedly "ground up" in the winds of the tornado.[24][12] The sheer strength and intensity of the tornado, as it was in Jarrell, gave the people in its direct path little time to get to safety. Most of the homes that were located in Double Creek Estates at the time were constructed on a slab foundation and lacked of a basement. Up to nineteen people had sought refuge in a single storm cellar.[25] Many residents of the Double Creek Estates had followed the recommended safety procedures, but were still killed because of the strength of the tornado.[26] Some people had chosen to evacuate ahead of the tornado, which may have saved lives. Despite the near-complete destruction of houses on the edge of the tornado, some walls were left standing, protecting several residents.[16] One survivor holed up in a bathtub and was flung several hundred feet from her house onto a road.[26][14]

Three entire families were killed in the Double Creek Estates area: the Igo family (five members), the Smith family (three members) and the Moehring family (four members).[24] An additional thirteen people were reportedly transported to a hospital after the event; Most of the wounded had abrasions and lacerations due to debris from the tornado.[27] Nine families in Jarrell had more than one member die in the tornado, and the youngest victim was five years old.[16]

Around 300 cattle grazing in a nearby pasture were killed and some were found 0.25 miles (400 m) away. Hundreds of these bodies, including domesticated animals were found dismembered, lacking limbs, decapitated or skinned.[4][16][11]

Aftermath

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An aerial view of the tornado's impacts on several homes near Jarrell; ground scouring from it is also visible

Within minutes after the tornado's impact, emergency management, police, and other volunteers began search-and-rescue operations in Jarrell. Numerous different agencies assisted in the search-and-rescue process, including the Texas Department of Public Safety Police, Texas National Guard, and other smaller agencies. Relief operations, which covered 211 homes and persons damaged or wounded in the tornado, cost an estimated $250,000 (1997 USD); community donations covered at least $200,000 (1997 USD) of the expenses.[28] The tornado knocked out power in Jarrell, effectively stunting communications between emergency services and residents. Cell phones were not functional, and families of affected residents became increasingly concerned due to an inability to communicate.[29] During the emergency response to the affected areas, emergency services almost drove past Double Creek Estates, unaware that houses had stood there. The Double Creek Estates subdivision quickly became the focal point of search-and-rescue and recovery efforts, which were aided by civilians and volunteer workers.[29]

The Jarrell Volunteer Fire Department organized a temporary morgue. Although a death toll of 30 people was initially reported, that figure was later revised to a final tally of 27.[28] A memorial park, which includes twenty-seven trees to commemorate the victims, was built in the Double Creek Estates area. Many impacted people in Double Creek Estates remained in the general area amid recovery efforts stemming from the tornado.[30]

Then-governor of Texas George W. Bush[31] declared Williamson County a disaster area, later stating during a visit to Jarrell on May 28 that it was "the worst tornado I've ever seen".[30] U.S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison also visited Jarrell and Cedar Park. Bush later requested federal aid for Williamson and Bell counties with support from Hutchinson.[30] The Federal Emergency Management Agency elected not to provide federal aid, citing the contributions from private and state sources. Instead, the Small Business Administration and U.S. Department of Agriculture made available loans for the rebuilding of homes, farms, and ranches.[30] Between May 29 and June 1, the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research carried out aerial and ground surveys of the tornadic damage in Texas in coordination with the Texas Wing Civil Air Patrol.[32]

In the six days following the event, the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research conducted multiple surveys from the air and on the ground to survey the track of the tornado and the damage caused by it. In coordination from the Civil Air Patrol in the state, the tornado received an F5 rating.[7]

Case studies and documentation

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There have been multiple in-depth case studies conducted on the tornado since May 1997, most of which covered the impacts to structures and victims as well as the conditions that produced it.[15][33][27]

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

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A poorly-built home in Jarrell that was swept off its foundation. The NIST noted that the structural integrity of buildings was not taken into consideration when rating the tornado.

A case study and critique was published by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, which covered the structural damage caused by the tornado and the track that it left. The NIST also published a detailed critique of the Fujita Scale as a direct result of the Jarrell tornado, which was at the time rated an F5.[15] The critique claimed that the Fujita scale failed to account for critical pointers in the assessment of the Jarrell tornado for two engineering factors: the structural construction quality and the specific winds speeds at the specific locations that were surveyed by the National Weather Service.[15] The case study concluded that some of the homes at Double Creek Estates did have small structural integrity issues, which includes factors such as a lack of sufficient anchor bolts and steel straps in the house foundations. However, despite the findings by the study, the tornado's rating remained as an F5.[7]

University of Wisconsin-Madison

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The University of Wisconsin-Madison also published a case study on the event, authored by Andrew Mankowski, which detailed the weather conditions that caused the tornado to form and how it became as violent as it was.[33] The study said that several meteorological conditions were responsible for the tornado being produced, due in part of a cold front, frontogenesis, and a very unstable warm air mass that had convective available potential energy (CAPE) values topping 6000 j/kg.[33] The latter factor, according to Mankowski, contributed to directional shear which formed the supercells. This caused the violent rotation that eventually produced the Jarrell tornado, and the subsequent strength of it.[33]

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

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The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), a U.S. government-affiliated disease control group, produced a study on the casualties of the tornado, including in-depth explanations of the injuries sustained to the bodies of victims and lengths of hospital stays of them.[27] The study and survey concluded that thirty-three people were transported to area hospitals with various injuries, with the most common ones lacerations, contusions, and abrasions.[27] It also noted the lack of shelters that had caused some of the fatalities, and recommended that more storm shelters be installed in Jarrell.[27]

Other studies

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Numerous other groups and organizations conducted small case studies and surveys in the wake of the tornado, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)[34] and the Regional and Mesocale Meteorology Branch (RaMMB).[35] The American Meteorological Society (AMS) also conducted a case study on the event, discussing the meteorological conditions that caused the event and the significance of the Jarrell tornado.[34] A small case study by the NOAA had concluded that the Emergency Alert System (EAS) was not activated in a timely manner to warn about the tornado.[16] Many warning systems had also failed, and the study recommended that emergency alerts and tornado warnings be issued earlier.[16]

See also

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Notes and references

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Notes

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  1. ^ This figure does not include the estimated 300 livestock that were killed in the tornado.
  2. ^ "Slabs" refer to the concrete or brick foundations that homes lay atop, a building feature common in the United States.

Footnotes

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  1. ^ Toohey, Marty (May 26, 2017). "Power and devastation of the Jarrell tornado, by the numbers". Austin American-Statesman. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i "The Tornadoes of May 27, 1997". National Weather Service Fort Worth, Texas. Archived from the original on August 8, 2024. Retrieved August 8, 2024.
  3. ^ Corfidi, Stephen F. (July 1998). Some Thoughts On the Role Mesoscale Features Played in the 27 May 1997 Central Texas Tornado Outbreak. 19th Severe Local Storms Conference. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Storm Prediction Center. Archived from the original on March 18, 2021. Retrieved April 7, 2021.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "May 1997 Tornado Outbreak" (PDF). New Braunfels, Texas: National Weather Service Austin/San Antonio. May 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 19, 2021. Retrieved April 7, 2021.
  5. ^ Henderson et al. (1998), p. A9.
  6. ^ Henderson et al. (1998), p. 1.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g Texas Event Report: F5 Tornado. Storm Events Database (Report). National Centers for Environmental Information. Archived from the original on July 21, 2021. Retrieved April 7, 2021.
  8. ^ Harmon, Dave (May 28, 1997). "Like a war zone". Austin American-Statesman. Austin, Texas. pp. A1, A12. Retrieved April 8, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
  9. ^ "Tornadoes kill 30 in Central Texas". El Paso Times. El Paso, Texas. Associated Press. May 28, 1997. p. 1A. Archived from the original on August 8, 2024. Retrieved April 8, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
  10. ^ a b Texas Event Report: F2 Tornado. Storm Events Database (Report). National Centers for Environmental Information. Archived from the original on April 2, 2021. Retrieved April 7, 2021.
  11. ^ a b Barricklow, Samuel D. (January 13, 2007). "Damage from the May 27, 1997 Jarrell, Texas Tornado". Jarrell, Texas Tornado Damage—May 27, 1997. Dallas County, Texas: K5KJ.net. Archived from the original on February 12, 2007. Retrieved April 4, 2021.
  12. ^ a b "Stormtrack Magazine: Jarrell, Texas Tornado Expanded Edition" (PDF). Storm Track. 21 (1). 1997. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 2, 2015. Retrieved June 20, 2024.
  13. ^ Verhovek, Sam Howe (May 29, 1997). "Little Is Left in Wake of Savage Tornado". The New York Times. New York. p. A1. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on April 10, 2021. Retrieved April 10, 2021.
  14. ^ a b c d e "Tornado Archive Data Explorer – Tornado Archive". tornadoarchive.com. Archived from the original on May 9, 2024. Retrieved May 13, 2024.
  15. ^ a b c d Phan, Long T.; Simiu, Emil (July 1, 1998). "Fujita Tornado Intensity Scale: A Critique Based on Observations of the Jarrell Tornado of May 27, 1997 (NIST TN 1426)". National Institute of Standards and Technology. Archived from the original on May 14, 2024. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h "Storm Data". Storm Data. 39 (5). Asheville, North Carolina: National Climatic Data Center. May 1997. ISSN 0039-1972. Retrieved April 7, 2021 – via National Centers for Environmental Information.
  17. ^ TX, NWS Austin/San Antonio, TX and NWS Fort Worth/Dallas (May 19, 2022). "May 27, 1997 Central Texas Tornado Outbreak". ArcGIS StoryMaps. Archived from the original on June 4, 2024. Retrieved July 23, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ a b Patterson, Kaley (April 15, 2024). "Ever Heard of the 'Dead Man Walking' Tornado?". KLAW. Archived from the original on May 12, 2024. Retrieved May 12, 2024.
  19. ^ a b c "The TIME Vault: June 9, 1997". Time. Archived from the original on June 30, 2023. Retrieved June 29, 2023.
  20. ^ "Tornado Jarrell Texas 1997". National Institute of Standards and Technology. May 27, 2011. Archived from the original on May 13, 2024. Retrieved August 8, 2024.
  21. ^ "A list of the top 10 worst tornadoes in Texas history". National Weather Service Amarillo, Texas. Archived from the original on May 2, 2023. Retrieved August 8, 2024.
  22. ^ a b Osborn, Claire; Easterly, Greg; Ward, Pamela (May 28, 1997). "Nearly destroyed in '89, Jarrell is slammed again". Austin American-Statesman. Austin, Texas. pp. A1, A10. Archived from the original on August 8, 2024. Retrieved April 8, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
  23. ^ "Sheriff's deputy describing the devastation at a Jarrell, Texas, subdivision leveled by a tornado". San Francisco Chronicle. May 28, 1997. p. 2. Retrieved October 30, 2024.
  24. ^ a b Rucker, Hanna (May 25, 2022). "Three families killed in the 1997 Jarrell tornado are buried together in Georgetown". KVUE. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved April 6, 2023.
  25. ^ Beach, Patrick (May 29, 1997). "Jarrell's toll 27; 23 still missing". Austin American-Statesman. Austin, Texas. pp. A1, A21. Archived from the original on August 8, 2024. Retrieved April 10, 2021.
  26. ^ a b Beach, Patrick (June 1, 1997). "Their roots held". Austin American-Statesman. Austin, Texas. pp. A1, A20–A21. Archived from the original on August 8, 2024. Retrieved April 10, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
  27. ^ a b c d e "Tornado Disaster – Texas, May 1997". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on May 19, 2024. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
  28. ^ a b Beach, Patrick (May 29, 1997). "Jarrell's toll 27; 23 still missing". Austin American-Statesman. p. 1. Archived from the original on May 17, 2024. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
  29. ^ a b Newland, Dominique (May 24, 2022). "First responders reflect on recovery efforts during 1997 Jarrell tornado". KVUE. Archived from the original on August 3, 2024. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
  30. ^ a b c d Henrikson, Eric; Yeomans, David; Currie, Kristen; Bannin, Nick; Kelly, Sean; Spencer, Jim (May 23, 2022). "'Hold on tight': 25 years since the Jarrell, TX tornado outbreak". KXAN-TV. Archived from the original on May 10, 2024. Retrieved May 10, 2024.
  31. ^ "After an F-5 tornado hit Jarrell in 1997, then-Gov. George W. Bush visited to survey the damage". KVUE. May 24, 2022. Archived from the original on August 3, 2024. Retrieved May 15, 2024.
  32. ^ "The Central Texas Tornadoes of May 27, 1997" (PDF). National Weather Service. April 1998. Retrieved October 23, 2024.
  33. ^ a b c d Andrew, Mankowski. "University of Wisconsin Case Study Jarrell 1997" (PDF). University of Wisconsin-Madison Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 3, 2024. Retrieved May 14, 2024.
  34. ^ a b Houston, Adam L.; Wilhelmson, Robert B. (March 1, 2007). "Observational Analysis of the 27 May 1997 Central Texas Tornadic Event. Part II: Tornadoes". Monthly Weather Review. 135 (3): 727–735. Bibcode:2007MWRv..135..727H. doi:10.1175/MWR3301.1. ISSN 1520-0493. Archived from the original on May 14, 2024. Retrieved May 14, 2024 – via American Meteorological Society.
  35. ^ "Enhanced-V". Regional and Mesoscale Meteorology Branch. Archived from the original on May 14, 2024. Retrieved May 14, 2024.

Sources

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Further reading

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